Longevity Standard is an original analytical framework, informed by published research and open methods. This page lists the sources behind LS's baseline mechanics and vocabulary, and gives credit where it's due.
LS doesn't copy or resell anyone else's work. The framework itself — the cost-of-income comparison, realized value, the four-property vocabulary, the scenario library, and the custom analytical engagements — is built by LS.
Gompertz, Benjamin (1825). On the Nature of the Function Expressive of the Law of Human Mortality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 115. The original mortality model underlying the survival calculations used throughout LS.
Milevsky, Moshe Arye (2020). Retirement Income Recipes in R. Springer. The modern parameterization of Gompertz mortality used in the LS engines, including the male and female parameter calibrations.
Milevsky, Moshe Arye (2022). How to Build a Modern Tontine: Algorithms, Scripts and Tips. Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-00928-0. The LS pool design engine implements the core approach described in this text — Gompertz mortality combined with a fair payout rule, extended through simulation across a real member cohort. Published under Creative Commons CC BY 4.0. LS's adaptations include a credibility adjustment for pool size, a level-payment solo baseline, and extension to mixed-age cohorts.
Milevsky, Moshe Arye (2014). Optimal Retirement Tontines for the 21st Century. SOA Living to 100 Monograph. Informs how LS thinks about the trade-off between pooling efficiency and individual fairness.
Waring, M. Barton & Siegel, Laurence B. (2014). The Only Spending Rule Article You'll Ever Need. Financial Analysts Journal. Introduces the Annually Recalculated Virtual Annuity (ARVA) as a dynamic spending benchmark. LS currently uses a simpler level-payment baseline for the solo comparison, and treats ARVA as a reference for future development.
U.S. Department of Labor (2020). Lifetime Income Illustrations — Interim Final Rule. Federal Register Vol. 85, No. 176. Sets the standardized assumptions for lifetime income illustrations under SECURE Act Section 203. LS uses this as a comparison point for where the standardized regulatory view aligns with, or differs from, a fuller structural analysis.
Where a source is published under Creative Commons or another open license, we link directly to the original. The Milevsky (2022) tontine text is published under CC BY 4.0 and may be shared and adapted with attribution.
LS's own framework, engines, and editorial conventions are separate from these sources.
Citations here indicate influence, not endorsement by the cited authors.
The LS actuarial engine and pool design engine are maintained on GitHub. Access by request.
[LS Engine] • [LS Pool Engine]
Access by request.